Increasing Low-Income Minority Parents' Involvement in Their Children's Education

Introduction

The level of involvement of parents in the educational process varies across different ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds. In turn, the performance index and drop-out rates of children depend on the input of their parents. According to Reece, Staudt, and Ogle (2013), youths with higher parental involvement achieve better schooling outcomes in comparison to their counterparts having lower contact with their parents. Firstly, it is imperative to note that social cognitive theory holds that children learn from direct observation of people within similar social circles (Bandura, 1999). Given this, children, who are in close contact and have regular interactions with their parents, derive many experiences from these relationships. Further, the theory argues that the replication of human behavior influences the conduct of others (Bandura, 1999). This campaign will use the diffusion of innovations theory to promote African American parents' involvement in the educational lives of their children and to explain systems for promoting that involvement. Within any social system, there are mechanisms by which information or practices diffuse and gain widespread acceptance. Consequently, the campaign aims to communicate the importance of parental involvement in elementary school-age children's education. Therefore, the paper aims to develop a campaign to increase the involvement of African American parents, particularly those who reside in lower-income areas, in the educational processes affecting their children, beginning with a structured plan for 30 minutes of daily academic engagement.

The Literature Review

Differentiating the nuances of parents' involvement is imperative to promoting it. The definition of the roles a parent play varies among different scholars. According to Yoder and Lopez (2013), parental involvement includes the connection between the parent and the school environment, while others argue that parents' primary role in fostering academic success in the home setting. In practice, for instance, some parents may fail to attend to the functions at the learning institutions but help their children with homework and other educational activities. Parental interest in school or community-based opportunities differs among parents, and it mainly depends on their income levels. Consistently, African Americans are the most negatively affected as compared to their white counterparts (Wong & Hughes, 2006). Further, contemporary research has focused on self-efficacy, cultural background, and socio-economic factors that motivate parents to be involved in the schooling of their children. As a result, much discussion and debate have failed to focus on the role minority parents play in the education of their children (Greene, 2013).

In accordance with the report given on the American Public agenda (2003), it was disclosed that the parents' participation in the education could enable them to make a difference. The two-thirds of the teachers surveyed tend to hold a belief that their students will improve their performance in school when their parents are involved in their children's education. Besides, 72% of the children who have not been involved by their parents in education tend to find a lot of cracks in school hence have a poor performance. Other research advocates for the parental involvement in the general operations of the school since the school environment also influence the child's performance. In the school set up, there are various ways in which the parents should get involved in the school and promoting the child's performance. Johns Hopkins University, Center on School, Family and Community Partnerships has divided school parent involvement programs into six broad categories. These should be encouraged among the low-income minority parents since balancing the children learning and their work at times becomes a problem.

• Parenting: It is the process in which the schools aid the families with the parenting skills by giving information about the children's developmental stages and give advice about how the parents can create conducive learning environments. The information provided will help the parents with the appropriate skills which they can use this information to enhance proper learning process which can improve their performance over time.
• Communication process: It is the process in which the schools play a role in teaching parents progress and the school services. They also open an opportunity for the parents to directly communicate to the schools to make the necessary inquiry about the school programs and do the follow up over their children's progress in school.
• Volunteering: It is the process in which the school provides the parents with an opportunity to pay a visit to their children and train them to work either in school or particularly in the classroom. These allow the parents to directly participate in the academic performance of the sons and daughters. It is thus a process which can improve the progress of their children over time. These can also enhance the progress of the child enhance high chances of their great performance.

In the event where these processes have been implemented, the children performance, as well as the parents' participation in the children and school activities, will improve immensely.

Strategic Plan

Yoder and Lopez (2013) used the grounded theory approach to determine the perceptions of parents regarding their ability or inability to be involved in their children's education. While many parents aim to participate in the learning of their children, social and economic factors can greatly inhibit their abilities. For instance, parents of color in low-income communities face numerous barriers in their quests to get engaged with the school and community activities due to the fact that the low-income parents lack certain flexibilities such as paid leave and the opportunity to take unexpected time off work (Lopez, Kreider, & Coffman, 2005; Smith 2006 cited in O'Donnell, 2013). As such, developing mechanisms and plans to alleviate these issues will be essential for progress. In the present case, this paper proposes a campaign that will encourage African American parents in low-income areas to participate daily in their children's education, encouraging parents to spend 30 minutes, or more, on either academic discussion or assignment assistance with their children.

However, before the formulation of the strategic plan, it is essential to consider available literature on parental involvement. Many parents face numerous barriers in their attempt to become engaged with the school and community. According to Reece, Staudt, & Ogle (2013), the Neighboring Project Parent Empowerment and Volunteer Readiness Program (Neighboring Project) highlights the efforts of urban parents in their involvement in the educational process. The collaborative effort between Project GRAD site and a housing company involved 15 parents of African American origin out of the total sample population of 22 (Reece et al., 2013). The goal of the project was to ensure that parents increased their engagement in the schooling of their children. In the present case, the campaign will disseminate messages that parental involvement is a parent's responsibility as part of the family-school partnership, will highlight the positive outcomes of parental involvement in children's education, and will argue that parents with low education can support their children in the form of nonacademic tasks.

The Family-School Partnership

Family-school partnerships are critical in establishing high confidence levels among parents from minority groups in their academic involvement. To a great extent, racial, cultural, and gender factors influence the level of parental involvement. In the presents' case, the campaign aims to increase these levels of school activities participation among parents of African American origin. According to Turney and Kao (2009), African American parents feel unwelcome at their children's learning institutions and are at times less likely to attend school functions in comparison to their white counterparts. In turn, the low parental involvement in schooling activities affects the performances of African American youth. At this point, the importance of parental involvement cannot be understated. Turney and Kao, Greene (2013) investigate the impact of race on parental involvement where the study sample relied upon parents of African American origin and examines how they construct their roles in their children's education. In general, both studies indicate that the perception of their involvement is low among African American parents. Therefore, the campaign should communicate the significance of the family-school partnership. Parents should engage in regular academic discussions with their children to tap into the benefits of the social cognitive theory that explains the importance of replication of human behavior (McAlister, Perry, & Parcel, 2008). Therefore, the campaign will increase the perception levels of African American parents regarding the importance and efficacy of their parental involvement.

Nonacademic Parental Support

Similarly, the campaign needs to communicate the message that parents with low education can support their children in the form of non-academic tasks, such as ensuring that the child completes homework or contacting the teacher if the child struggles with assignments. As mentioned earlier, this strategy relates to the social cognitive theory construct of self-efficacy (McAlister et al., 2008). Studies in the area have revealed that the level of parental involvement influences the academic outcomes of the children. Given this, propagating and enhancing parental contact in both academic and non-academic matters is imperative for student success. Depending on educational competencies, a parent's involvement in educational issues may be limited. As a result, as Reece et al. (2013) suggest, a lack of confidence and knowledge can lead to a lack of parents' participation in their children's educational activities. However, while improving the academic abilities of the focus group is difficult, they can be encouraged to participate in other aspects of their children's education. For instance, the parent can provide the support and concern required to ensure the child completes assigned homework, without assisting in the answering of difficult questions. Therefore, both academic and non-academic involvement is critical in improving the learning outcomes of the child.

Moreover, the willingness of parents to be involved in the learning process of their children is pegged more on intellectual, physical, and emotional factors rather than desire or motivation. African American parents are disadvantaged in this aspect as they are exposed to inequalities due to economic and racial discrimination. Accordingly, Yoder and Lopez (2013) conducted a qualitative study which revealed that some parents find it difficult to assist their children because they feel they are a limited resource for their children. Given this, the educational outcomes of the child are affected by the attitudes and perceptions of the parents. Hence, the campaign strategy should develop the confidence of parents in engaging in nonacademic tasks to improve the performances of their children.

Communication Channels to Reach African American Parents

While the previous recommendations were geared to improving the level of parental involvement, those improvements depend on the dissemination of knowledge to effect change. Firstly, the communication channel should serve a large percentage of the target audience. In the present case, the campaign seeks to communicate through a network of volunteers who live in the same lower-income communities. According to the diffusion of innovations theory, "interpersonal channels are more effective in persuading an individual to accept a new idea, especially if the interpersonal channel links two or more individuals who are similar in socioeconomic status, education, or other important ways" (Rogers, 2003, p. 18). Hence, predominantly, the campaign will target the basic units of organization in the community.

Over time, specific ideas spread within a particular community. The movement of information is influenced by the innovation itself and communication channels. According to Reece et al. (2013), a study from a neighborhood-based collaboration project to increase parent engagement observed that a primary way participants became involved was through encouragement from a neighbor, friend, or family member. Similarly, a survey by O'Donnell, Kirkner, and Meyer-Adams (2008) of 101 parents in a low-income urban area found that 52% of them became involved with an urban community school through a friend, neighbor, or relative. One of the goals of the community school is to provide programming to strengthen parenting skills and promote self-sufficiency. Therefore, the communications campaign will target people in contact with the student within the larger community.

Developing Social Capital

Finally, the campaign will implement a direct a policy effort aimed at developing social capital, as well as creating special networks of support to guarantee families' access to resources. Under the social cognitive theory, social interactions and experiences play a fundamental role in the learning of the child (McAlister et al., 2008). In general, social capital denotes the economic value of social networks in the achievement of the common good. In the present case, parental involvement has benefits to both the parent and the child. Greene (2013) argues that schools have a central role in empowering parents. Learning institutions can provide the opportunity for parents to act as partners and influence decision-making. By bringing parents closer to the educational environment of their children, they are more likely to be more involved in academic and nonacademic activities.

Just as school resources must be used to develop relationships, the development of relationships is, reciprocally, essential in the utilization of available resources. Parents and children should ensure reciprocity of the outcomes derived from parental involvement. As mentioned earlier, the economic status of family impacts the time available for educational interactions. Despite this, financial strength should not play a significant role in educational involvement. For example, according to the study done by Curry and Adams (2014) revealed that "parent responsibility–as observable in how parents construct their role in the educational process and their efficacy to support the learning and development of their child–was higher for parents with stronger school and other adult networks" (p. 918). Furthermore, community agencies were coded as a support and resource (Yoder & Lopez, 2013). Therefore, the campaign policies should develop the social relationships and resources within the community.

Besides, the schools should also improve the parents' participation through the inclusion of parents in the decision-making process, enhancing community collaborations, through sharing of ideas on how the parents can teach their children back at home, through volunteering, communication and parenting process. Therefore, when the recommendation is followed strictly, then the benefits of the parents' involvement in the school and children activities can be evident.

Positive Outcomes of Parental Involvement

The campaign should communicate a message that highlights the positive outcomes of parental involvement in their children's education. Parents are considered to be the first and most important educators of a child. According to DePlanty, Coulter-Kern, and Duchane (2007), children are more likely to be positively influenced by sustained relationships between the home and school environment. Also, a home involvement which encompasses academic discussions and planning learning activities has the strongest influence on educational outcomes. This assertion is in line with the social cognitive theory that advocates for learning through observations within a social context–for example, a family (Bandura, 1999). Furthermore, DePlanty et al. (2007) investigate why many parents are not getting involved, despite the apparent benefits of parental involvement. For instance, some parents believe that their involvement is not significant in the academic performance of their children. Similarly, the level of education of the parent acts as a barrier (DePlanty et al., 2007). As a result, parents with higher education levels are more likely to be involved in academic matters in comparison with those with lower qualifications. Therefore, communicating the importance of parental involvement is critical to the educational processes of a child.

Due to the apparent benefits of parental involvement, implementing policies that are geared to increase the relationships of parents and their children is imperative to achieve better learning outcomes. Moreover, according to Marschall and Shaw (2014), the success of parental involvement is not entirely influenced by the socio-economic background and availability of resources. Given this, a campaign that outlines the importance of both academic and non-academic support will address the challenges faced by African American parents. The importance of parental involvement is reiterated by Hill and Taylor (2004), who argue that parental involvement affects achievement across cultural, economic, and community contexts. As a fact, parental involvement guarantees positive outcomes in learning. Therefore, parents who are concerned about the academic performance of their children should participate in school and nonacademic activities.

Conclusion

Parental involvement plays a significant role in the educational outcomes of children. Given this, there is an urgent need for parents to increase their involvement in their children's education. Due to racial and economic disparities, low-income minority groups, including African Americans, experience lower educational outcomes. For instance, in comparison to their white counterparts, African Americans have to work longer to meet their financial obligations. This factor, in turn, reduces the amount of time they are in contact with their children. Without a doubt, parental involvement has many benefits to the academic outcomes of pupils across all levels of learning. Despite this, the attitudes and perceptions of minority groups affect the implementation of policies to increase the amount of time they channel into the academic and nonacademic activities of their children. Consequently, the paper uses social cognitive theory and the diffusion of innovations approach to develop campaign strategies to increase awareness of parental involvement. Hence, the empowerment of African American parents to overcome racial and economic challenges will contribute to better academic outcomes for their children.

References

Bandura, A. (1999). A social cognitive theory of personality. In L. Pervin & O. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality (2nd ed., pp. 154-196). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

Center of Public Education (2011). Back to school: How parent involvement affects student achievement.

Curry, K. K., & Adams, C. M. (2014). Parent social networks and parent responsibility: Implications for school leadership. Journal of School Leadership, 24(5), 918-948.

DePlanty, J., Coulter-Kern, R., & Duchane, K. A. (2007). Perceptions of parent involvement in academic achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(6), 361-368.

Greene, S. (2013). Mapping low-income African American parents' roles in their children's education in a changing political economy. Teachers College Record, 115(10), 1-33. Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org.proxy1.library.jhu.edu/library/content.asp?contentid=17155.

Hill, N. E., & Taylor, L. C. (2004). Parental school involvement and children's academic achievement: Pragmatics and issues. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 161-164.

Marschall, M. J., & Shah, P. R. (2016). Linking the process and outcomes of parent involvement policy to the parent involvement gap. Urban Education. doi:10.1177/0042085916661386.

McAlister, A. L., Perry, C. L., & Parcel, G. S. (2008). Chapter 8. In Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (4th ed., pp. 169-188). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved from https://ares.library.jhu.edu/aresCMS/ares.dll?Action=10&Type=10&Value=335131.

O'Donnell, J., Kirkner, S. L., & Meyer-Adams, N. (2008). Low-income, urban consumers' perceptions of community school outreach practices, desired services, and outcomes. School Community Journal, 18(2), 147-164.

Reece, C. A., Staudt, M. M., & Ogle, A. (2013). Lessons learned from a neighborhood-based collaboration to increase parent engagement. School Community Journal, 23(2), 207-225.

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Chapter 1. In Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Retrieved from https://ares.library.jhu.edu/aresCMS/ares.dll?Action=10&Type=10&Value=335121.

Sapungan, G. M. & Sapungan R. M. (2014). Parental involvement in child's education: Importance, barriers, and benefits. Asian Journal of Management, Science & Education, 3, 42-48.

Turney, K., & Kao, G. (2009). Barriers to school involvement: Are immigrant parents disadvantaged? The Journal of Educational Research, 102(4), 257-271.

Wong, S. W., & Hughes, J. (2006). Ethnicity and language contribution to dimensions of parent involvement. School Psychology Review, 35(4), 645–662.

Yoder, J., & Lopez, A. (2013). Parent's perceptions of involvement in children's education: Findings from a qualitative study of public housing residents. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 30(5), 415-433. doi:10.1007/s10560-013-0298-0